diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/metadata/services/baseopenstackservice.py b/cloudbaseinit/metadata/services/baseopenstackservice.py
index 300f113d..7973df0b 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/metadata/services/baseopenstackservice.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/metadata/services/baseopenstackservice.py
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ from oslo.config import cfg
 
 from cloudbaseinit.metadata.services import base
 from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 from cloudbaseinit.utils import x509constants
 
 opts = [
@@ -48,7 +49,8 @@ class BaseOpenStackService(base.BaseMetadataService):
         path = posixpath.normpath(
             posixpath.join('openstack', version, 'meta_data.json'))
         data = self._get_cache_data(path)
-        return json.loads(data.decode('utf8'))
+        if data:
+            return json.loads(encoding.get_as_string(data))
 
     def get_instance_id(self):
         return self._get_meta_data().get('uuid')
@@ -98,10 +100,12 @@ class BaseOpenStackService(base.BaseMetadataService):
                 i += 1
 
         if not cert_data:
+
             # Look if the user_data contains a PEM certificate
             try:
                 user_data = self.get_user_data()
-                if user_data.startswith(x509constants.PEM_HEADER):
+                if user_data.startswith(
+                        x509constants.PEM_HEADER.encode()):
                     cert_data = user_data
             except base.NotExistingMetadataException:
                 LOG.debug("user_data metadata not present")
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/osutils/base.py b/cloudbaseinit/osutils/base.py
index ace015ae..55267ca1 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/osutils/base.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/osutils/base.py
@@ -19,6 +19,8 @@ import os
 import subprocess
 import sys
 
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
+
 
 class BaseOSUtils(object):
     PROTOCOL_TCP = "TCP"
@@ -34,7 +36,9 @@ class BaseOSUtils(object):
         # On Windows os.urandom() uses CryptGenRandom, which is a
         # cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator
         b64_password = base64.b64encode(os.urandom(256))
-        return b64_password.replace('/', '').replace('+', '')[:length]
+        b64_password = encoding.get_as_string(b64_password).replace(
+            '/', '').replace('+', '')[:length]
+        return b64_password
 
     def execute_process(self, args, shell=True, decode_output=False):
         p = subprocess.Popen(args,
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/osutils/windows.py b/cloudbaseinit/osutils/windows.py
index 3c4cb0eb..5eccf575 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/osutils/windows.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/osutils/windows.py
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@ import wmi
 from cloudbaseinit import exception
 from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
 from cloudbaseinit.osutils import base
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 from cloudbaseinit.utils.windows import network
 
 
@@ -707,9 +708,12 @@ class WindowsUtils(base.BaseOSUtils):
                 while i < forward_table.dwNumEntries:
                     row = table[i]
                     routing_table.append((
-                        Ws2_32.inet_ntoa(row.dwForwardDest),
-                        Ws2_32.inet_ntoa(row.dwForwardMask),
-                        Ws2_32.inet_ntoa(row.dwForwardNextHop),
+                        encoding.get_as_string(Ws2_32.inet_ntoa(
+                            row.dwForwardDest)),
+                        encoding.get_as_string(Ws2_32.inet_ntoa(
+                            row.dwForwardMask)),
+                        encoding.get_as_string(Ws2_32.inet_ntoa(
+                            row.dwForwardNextHop)),
                         row.dwForwardIfIndex,
                         row.dwForwardMetric1))
                     i += 1
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/networkconfig.py b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/networkconfig.py
index b912bbf5..1d9d60cd 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/networkconfig.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/networkconfig.py
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ from cloudbaseinit.metadata.services import base as service_base
 from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
 from cloudbaseinit.osutils import factory as osutils_factory
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins import base as plugin_base
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 
 
 LOG = logging.getLogger(__name__)
@@ -58,6 +59,7 @@ class NetworkConfigPlugin(plugin_base.BasePlugin):
             content_path = network_config['content_path']
             content_name = content_path.rsplit('/', 1)[-1]
             debian_network_conf = service.get_content(content_name)
+            debian_network_conf = encoding.get_as_string(debian_network_conf)
 
             LOG.debug('network config content:\n%s' % debian_network_conf)
 
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/setuserpassword.py b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/setuserpassword.py
index 287966ff..fad79ea3 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/setuserpassword.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/setuserpassword.py
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ class SetUserPasswordPlugin(base.BasePlugin):
     def _get_ssh_public_key(self, service):
         public_keys = service.get_public_keys()
         if public_keys:
-            return public_keys[0]
+            return list(public_keys)[0]
 
     def _get_password(self, service, osutils):
         if CONF.inject_user_password:
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdata.py b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdata.py
index 67d30776..4b151775 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdata.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdata.py
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins import base
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdataplugins import factory
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows import userdatautils
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 
 LOG = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -40,6 +41,7 @@ class UserDataPlugin(base.BasePlugin):
         if not user_data:
             return (base.PLUGIN_EXECUTION_DONE, False)
 
+        LOG.debug('User data content length: %d' % len(user_data))
         user_data = self._check_gzip_compression(user_data)
 
         return self._process_user_data(user_data)
@@ -53,14 +55,16 @@ class UserDataPlugin(base.BasePlugin):
         return user_data
 
     def _parse_mime(self, user_data):
-        return email.message_from_string(user_data).walk()
+        user_data_str = encoding.get_as_string(user_data)
+        LOG.debug('User data content:\n%s' % user_data_str)
+
+        return email.message_from_string(user_data_str).walk()
 
     def _process_user_data(self, user_data):
         plugin_status = base.PLUGIN_EXECUTION_DONE
         reboot = False
 
-        LOG.debug('User data content:\n%s' % user_data)
-        if user_data.startswith('Content-Type: multipart'):
+        if user_data.startswith(b'Content-Type: multipart'):
             user_data_plugins = factory.load_plugins()
             user_handlers = {}
 
@@ -158,7 +162,7 @@ class UserDataPlugin(base.BasePlugin):
         return (plugin_status, reboot)
 
     def _process_non_multi_part(self, user_data):
-        if user_data.startswith('#cloud-config'):
+        if user_data.startswith(b'#cloud-config'):
             user_data_plugins = factory.load_plugins()
             cloud_config_plugin = user_data_plugins.get('text/cloud-config')
             ret_val = cloud_config_plugin.process(user_data)
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/heat.py b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/heat.py
index 072770e3..d063c4fc 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/heat.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/heat.py
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ from oslo.config import cfg
 from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdataplugins import base
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows import userdatautils
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 
 opts = [
     cfg.StrOpt('heat_config_dir', default='C:\\cfn', help='The directory '
@@ -47,8 +48,7 @@ class HeatPlugin(base.BaseUserDataPlugin):
         file_name = os.path.join(CONF.heat_config_dir, part.get_filename())
         self._check_dir(file_name)
 
-        with open(file_name, 'wb') as f:
-            f.write(part.get_payload())
+        encoding.write_file(file_name, part.get_payload())
 
         if part.get_filename() == self._heat_user_data_filename:
             return userdatautils.execute_user_data_script(part.get_payload())
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/shellscript.py b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/shellscript.py
index 1d288879..fad0f4c5 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/shellscript.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/shellscript.py
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import tempfile
 from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows import fileexecutils
 from cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdataplugins import base
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 
 LOG = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -32,8 +33,7 @@ class ShellScriptPlugin(base.BaseUserDataPlugin):
         target_path = os.path.join(tempfile.gettempdir(), file_name)
 
         try:
-            with open(target_path, 'wb') as f:
-                f.write(part.get_payload())
+            encoding.write_file(target_path, part.get_payload())
 
             return fileexecutils.exec_file(target_path)
         except Exception as ex:
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdatautils.py b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdatautils.py
index 9d4915c5..2037d639 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdatautils.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/plugins/windows/userdatautils.py
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import uuid
 
 from cloudbaseinit.openstack.common import log as logging
 from cloudbaseinit.osutils import factory as osutils_factory
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 
 LOG = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -54,8 +55,7 @@ def execute_user_data_script(user_data):
         return 0
 
     try:
-        with open(target_path, 'wb') as f:
-            f.write(user_data)
+        encoding.write_file(target_path, user_data)
 
         if powershell:
             (out, err,
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/metadata/services/test_baseopenstackservice.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/metadata/services/test_baseopenstackservice.py
index c24a52a2..bc2b41f7 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/metadata/services/test_baseopenstackservice.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/metadata/services/test_baseopenstackservice.py
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ class BaseOpenStackServiceTest(unittest.TestCase):
         response = self._service.get_client_auth_certs()
         mock_get_meta_data.assert_called_once_with()
         if 'meta' in meta_data:
-            self.assertEqual(['fake cert'], response)
+            self.assertEqual([b'fake cert'], response)
         elif type(ret_value) is str and ret_value.startswith(
                 x509constants.PEM_HEADER):
             mock_get_user_data.assert_called_once_with()
@@ -136,11 +136,11 @@ class BaseOpenStackServiceTest(unittest.TestCase):
 
     def test_get_client_auth_certs(self):
         self._test_get_client_auth_certs(
-            meta_data={'meta': {'admin_cert0': 'fake cert'}})
+            meta_data={'meta': {'admin_cert0': b'fake cert'}})
 
     def test_get_client_auth_certs_no_cert_data(self):
         self._test_get_client_auth_certs(
-            meta_data={}, ret_value=x509constants.PEM_HEADER)
+            meta_data={}, ret_value=x509constants.PEM_HEADER.encode())
 
     def test_get_client_auth_certs_no_cert_data_exception(self):
         self._test_get_client_auth_certs(
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_setuserpassword.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_setuserpassword.py
index 2915307d..ced1102d 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_setuserpassword.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_setuserpassword.py
@@ -55,10 +55,12 @@ class SetUserPasswordPluginTests(unittest.TestCase):
     def _test_get_ssh_public_key(self, data_exists):
         mock_service = mock.MagicMock()
         public_keys = self.fake_data['public_keys']
-        mock_service.get_public_keys.return_value = public_keys
+        mock_service.get_public_keys.return_value = public_keys.values()
+
         response = self._setpassword_plugin._get_ssh_public_key(mock_service)
+
         mock_service.get_public_keys.assert_called_with()
-        self.assertEqual(public_keys[0], response)
+        self.assertEqual(list(public_keys.values())[0], response)
 
     def test_get_ssh_plublic_key(self):
         self._test_get_ssh_public_key(data_exists=True)
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdata.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdata.py
index e92ac1e2..bd4501bc 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdata.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdata.py
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ class UserDataPluginTest(unittest.TestCase):
             self.assertEqual(response, mock_process_user_data.return_value)
 
     def test_execute(self):
-        self._test_execute(ret_val=mock.sentinel.fake_data)
+        self._test_execute(ret_val='fake_data')
 
     def test_execute_no_data(self):
         self._test_execute(ret_val=None)
@@ -85,10 +85,15 @@ class UserDataPluginTest(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertEqual(data, response)
 
     @mock.patch('email.message_from_string')
-    def test_parse_mime(self, mock_message_from_string):
+    @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.utils.encoding.get_as_string')
+    def test_parse_mime(self, mock_get_as_string, mock_message_from_string):
         fake_user_data = 'fake data'
+
         response = self._userdata._parse_mime(user_data=fake_user_data)
-        mock_message_from_string.assert_called_once_with(fake_user_data)
+
+        mock_get_as_string.assert_called_once_with(fake_user_data)
+        mock_message_from_string.assert_called_once_with(
+            mock_get_as_string.return_value)
         self.assertEqual(response, mock_message_from_string().walk())
 
     @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdataplugins.factory.'
@@ -110,7 +115,8 @@ class UserDataPluginTest(unittest.TestCase):
         mock_process_part.return_value = (base.PLUGIN_EXECUTION_DONE, reboot)
 
         response = self._userdata._process_user_data(user_data=user_data)
-        if user_data.startswith('Content-Type: multipart'):
+
+        if user_data.startswith(b'Content-Type: multipart'):
             mock_load_plugins.assert_called_once_with()
             mock_parse_mime.assert_called_once_with(user_data)
             mock_process_part.assert_called_once_with(mock_part,
@@ -122,15 +128,15 @@ class UserDataPluginTest(unittest.TestCase):
                              response)
 
     def test_process_user_data_multipart_reboot_true(self):
-        self._test_process_user_data(user_data='Content-Type: multipart',
+        self._test_process_user_data(user_data=b'Content-Type: multipart',
                                      reboot=True)
 
     def test_process_user_data_multipart_reboot_false(self):
-        self._test_process_user_data(user_data='Content-Type: multipart',
+        self._test_process_user_data(user_data=b'Content-Type: multipart',
                                      reboot=False)
 
     def test_process_user_data_non_multipart(self):
-        self._test_process_user_data(user_data='Content-Type: non-multipart',
+        self._test_process_user_data(user_data=b'Content-Type: non-multipart',
                                      reboot=False)
 
     @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdata.UserDataPlugin'
@@ -250,7 +256,7 @@ class UserDataPluginTest(unittest.TestCase):
                 '._get_plugin_return_value')
     def test_process_non_multi_part(self, mock_get_plugin_return_value,
                                     mock_execute_user_data_script):
-        user_data = 'fake'
+        user_data = b'fake'
         response = self._userdata._process_non_multi_part(user_data=user_data)
         mock_execute_user_data_script.assert_called_once_with(user_data)
         mock_get_plugin_return_value.assert_called_once_with(
@@ -263,7 +269,7 @@ class UserDataPluginTest(unittest.TestCase):
                 '._get_plugin_return_value')
     def test_process_non_multi_part_cloud_config(
             self, mock_get_plugin_return_value, mock_load_plugins):
-        user_data = '#cloud-config'
+        user_data = b'#cloud-config'
         mock_return_value = mock.sentinel.return_value
         mock_cloud_config_plugin = mock.Mock()
         mock_cloud_config_plugin.process.return_value = mock_return_value
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdatautils.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdatautils.py
index ae32c201..ffc2617c 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdatautils.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/test_userdatautils.py
@@ -37,8 +37,9 @@ class UserDataUtilsTest(unittest.TestCase):
     @mock.patch('os.path.expandvars')
     @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.osutils.factory.get_os_utils')
     @mock.patch('uuid.uuid4')
-    def _test_execute_user_data_script(self, mock_uuid4, mock_get_os_utils,
-                                       mock_path_expandvars,
+    @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.utils.encoding.write_file')
+    def _test_execute_user_data_script(self, mock_write_file, mock_uuid4,
+                                       mock_get_os_utils, mock_path_expandvars,
                                        mock_path_exists, mock_os_remove,
                                        mock_gettempdir, mock_re_search,
                                        fake_user_data):
@@ -51,6 +52,8 @@ class UserDataUtilsTest(unittest.TestCase):
         powershell = False
         mock_get_os_utils.return_value = mock_osutils
         mock_path_exists.return_value = True
+        extension = ''
+
         if fake_user_data == '^rem cmd\s':
             side_effect = [match_instance]
             number_of_calls = 1
@@ -88,12 +91,14 @@ class UserDataUtilsTest(unittest.TestCase):
 
         mock_re_search.side_effect = side_effect
 
-        with mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdatautils.open',
-                        mock.mock_open(), create=True):
-            response = userdatautils.execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data)
+        response = userdatautils.execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data)
+
         mock_gettempdir.assert_called_once_with()
+
         self.assertEqual(number_of_calls, mock_re_search.call_count)
         if args:
+            mock_write_file.assert_called_once_with(path + extension,
+                                                    fake_user_data)
             mock_osutils.execute_process.assert_called_with(args, shell)
             mock_os_remove.assert_called_once_with(path + extension)
             self.assertEqual(None, response)
@@ -106,24 +111,24 @@ class UserDataUtilsTest(unittest.TestCase):
             self.assertEqual(0, response)
 
     def test_handle_batch(self):
-        fake_user_data = '^rem cmd\s'
+        fake_user_data = b'^rem cmd\s'
         self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data=fake_user_data)
 
     def test_handle_python(self):
-        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data='^#!/usr/bin/env'
-                                                           '\spython\s')
+        self._test_execute_user_data_script(
+            fake_user_data=b'^#!/usr/bin/env\spython\s')
 
     def test_handle_shell(self):
-        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data='^#!')
+        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data=b'^#!')
 
     def test_handle_powershell(self):
-        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data='^#ps1\s')
+        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data=b'^#ps1\s')
 
     def test_handle_powershell_sysnative(self):
-        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data='#ps1_sysnative\s')
+        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data=b'#ps1_sysnative\s')
 
     def test_handle_powershell_sysnative_no_sysnative(self):
-        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data='#ps1_x86\s')
+        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data=b'#ps1_x86\s')
 
     def test_handle_unsupported_format(self):
-        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data='unsupported')
+        self._test_execute_user_data_script(fake_user_data=b'unsupported')
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_heat.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_heat.py
index cf6b4b84..27a0b74e 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_heat.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_heat.py
@@ -50,19 +50,19 @@ class HeatUserDataHandlerTests(unittest.TestCase):
                 '.execute_user_data_script')
     @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.userdataplugins.heat'
                 '.HeatPlugin._check_dir')
-    def _test_process(self, mock_check_dir, mock_execute_user_data_script,
-                      filename):
+    @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.utils.encoding.write_file')
+    def _test_process(self, mock_write_file, mock_check_dir,
+                      mock_execute_user_data_script, filename):
         mock_part = mock.MagicMock()
         mock_part.get_filename.return_value = filename
-        with mock.patch('six.moves.builtins.open', mock.mock_open(),
-                        create=True) as handle:
-            response = self._heat.process(mock_part)
-
-            handle().write.assert_called_once_with(mock_part.get_payload())
+        response = self._heat.process(mock_part)
 
         path = os.path.join(CONF.heat_config_dir, filename)
         mock_check_dir.assert_called_once_with(path)
         mock_part.get_filename.assert_called_with()
+        mock_write_file.assert_called_once_with(
+            path, mock_part.get_payload.return_value)
+
         if filename == self._heat._heat_user_data_filename:
             mock_execute_user_data_script.assert_called_with(
                 mock_part.get_payload())
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_shellscript.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_shellscript.py
index f08e1cae..71680aef 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_shellscript.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/plugins/windows/userdataplugins/test_shellscript.py
@@ -27,8 +27,9 @@ class ShellScriptPluginTests(unittest.TestCase):
     @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.osutils.factory.get_os_utils')
     @mock.patch('tempfile.gettempdir')
     @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.plugins.windows.fileexecutils.exec_file')
-    def _test_process(self, mock_exec_file, mock_gettempdir, mock_get_os_utils,
-                      exception=False):
+    @mock.patch('cloudbaseinit.utils.encoding.write_file')
+    def _test_process(self, mock_write_file, mock_exec_file, mock_gettempdir,
+                      mock_get_os_utils, exception=False):
         fake_dir_path = os.path.join("fake", "dir")
         mock_osutils = mock.MagicMock()
         mock_part = mock.MagicMock()
@@ -45,6 +46,8 @@ class ShellScriptPluginTests(unittest.TestCase):
             response = self._shellscript.process(mock_part)
 
         mock_part.get_filename.assert_called_once_with()
+        mock_write_file.assert_called_once_with(
+            fake_target, mock_part.get_payload.return_value)
         mock_exec_file.assert_called_once_with(fake_target)
         mock_part.get_payload.assert_called_once_with()
         mock_gettempdir.assert_called_once_with()
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/test_dhcp.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/test_dhcp.py
index 614d0318..8de6bd5e 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/test_dhcp.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/test_dhcp.py
@@ -45,9 +45,8 @@ class DHCPUtilsTests(unittest.TestCase):
         data += b'\x00' * 128
         data += dhcp._DHCP_COOKIE
         data += b'\x35\x01\x01'
-        data += b'\x3c' + struct.pack('b',
-                                      len('fake id')) + 'fake id'.encode(
-                                          'ascii')
+        data += b'\x3c' + struct.pack('b', len('fake id')) + 'fake id'.encode(
+            'ascii')
         data += b'\x3d\x07\x01'
         data += fake_mac_address_b
         data += b'\x37' + struct.pack('b', len([100]))
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/windows/test_x509.py b/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/windows/test_x509.py
index 782704f8..8ce9c4ce 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/windows/test_x509.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/tests/utils/windows/test_x509.py
@@ -281,6 +281,8 @@ class CryptoAPICertManagerTests(unittest.TestCase):
         fake_cert_data += x509constants.PEM_HEADER + '\n'
         fake_cert_data += 'fake cert' + '\n'
         fake_cert_data += x509constants.PEM_FOOTER
+        fake_cert_data = fake_cert_data.encode()
+
         response = self._x509_manager._get_cert_base64(fake_cert_data)
         self.assertEqual('fake cert', response)
 
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/utils/crypt.py b/cloudbaseinit/utils/crypt.py
index ece1f422..1a4deb70 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/utils/crypt.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/utils/crypt.py
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ class CryptManager(object):
         key_type_len = struct.unpack('>I', pub_key[offset:offset + 4])[0]
         offset += 4
 
-        key_type = pub_key[offset:offset + key_type_len]
+        key_type = pub_key[offset:offset + key_type_len].decode('utf-8')
         offset += key_type_len
 
         if key_type not in ['ssh-rsa', 'rsa', 'rsa1']:
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/utils/encoding.py b/cloudbaseinit/utils/encoding.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7a09e90d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/utils/encoding.py
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+# vim: tabstop=4 shiftwidth=4 softtabstop=4
+
+# Copyright 2014 Cloudbase Solutions Srl
+#
+#    Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); you may
+#    not use this file except in compliance with the License. You may obtain
+#    a copy of the License at
+#
+#         http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+#    Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+#    distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT
+#    WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the
+#    License for the specific language governing permissions and limitations
+#    under the License.
+
+import six
+
+
+def get_as_string(value):
+    if value is None or isinstance(value, six.text_type):
+        return value
+    else:
+        try:
+            return value.decode()
+        except Exception:
+            pass
+
+
+def write_file(target_path, data, mode='wb'):
+    if isinstance(data, six.text_type) and 'b' in mode:
+        data = data.encode()
+
+    with open(target_path, mode) as f:
+        f.write(data)
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/cryptoapi.py b/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/cryptoapi.py
index 7288fba2..76b12ddf 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/cryptoapi.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/cryptoapi.py
@@ -102,8 +102,8 @@ CRYPT_STRING_BASE64 = 1
 PKCS_7_ASN_ENCODING = 65536
 PROV_RSA_FULL = 1
 X509_ASN_ENCODING = 1
-szOID_PKIX_KP_SERVER_AUTH = "1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1"
-szOID_RSA_SHA1RSA = "1.2.840.113549.1.1.5"
+szOID_PKIX_KP_SERVER_AUTH = b"1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1"
+szOID_RSA_SHA1RSA = b"1.2.840.113549.1.1.5"
 
 advapi32 = windll.advapi32
 crypt32 = windll.crypt32
diff --git a/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/x509.py b/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/x509.py
index 7e2de462..392d22cd 100644
--- a/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/x509.py
+++ b/cloudbaseinit/utils/windows/x509.py
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ import uuid
 
 from ctypes import wintypes
 
+from cloudbaseinit.utils import encoding
 from cloudbaseinit.utils.windows import cryptoapi
 from cloudbaseinit.utils import x509constants
 
@@ -202,7 +203,7 @@ class CryptoAPICertManager(object):
                 free(subject_encoded)
 
     def _get_cert_base64(self, cert_data):
-        base64_cert_data = cert_data
+        base64_cert_data = encoding.get_as_string(cert_data)
         if base64_cert_data.startswith(x509constants.PEM_HEADER):
             base64_cert_data = base64_cert_data[len(x509constants.PEM_HEADER):]
         if base64_cert_data.endswith(x509constants.PEM_FOOTER):